Lights and shadows The development and functioning of small towns in Czechoslovakia, 1918–1938 Libor Denk

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 68 Libor Denk Lights and shadows The development and functioning of small towns in Czechoslovakia, 1918–1938 ABSTRACT This article focuses on the development of towns and urban infrastructure from 1918 to 1938 in what was then Czechoslovakia, using the example of the small town of Nové M ě sto na Morav ě. At this time small towns in Czechoslovakia were struggling with high budget deficits and the inability to implement the most important and necessary municipal projects. The First Czechoslovak Republic was based on a democratic concept that allowed a broader cross-section of society, including women, participation in political life and municipal self-government. One research question is whether there were women on the councils during this period who could, thanks to this position, participate in the building of modern infrastructure. The next research question addresses the circumstances under which major municipal projects were built and the problems the councillors encountered in their implementation. As an example, projects related to urban sanitation – water supply and sewerage – were chosen. CV Libor Denk works as a PhD student at Palacký University in Olomouc and as a historian and curator of the Horácké Museum in Nové M ě sto na Morav ě. His research focuses on the history of business and the development of cities in the 19th and 20th centuries. KEYWORDS Infrastructure, Small town, Czechoslovakia, 20th century Libor Denk,„Lights and shadows. The development and functioning of small towns in Czechoslovakia, 1918–1938“, insightOut. Journal on Gender and Sexuality in STEM Collections and Cultures , 2(2024), 67–74, DOI: 10.60531/insightout.2024.2.10 DOI: 10.60531/insightout.2024.2.10 Published under license CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 69 Like the sewerage system, the construction of the water supply system was one of the most important municipal projects. electoral group or political party. Thus, for the first time, women could both vote and be elected. What were their activities on the council and to what extent did women influence the building of modern infrastructure in Nové M ě sto na Morav ě ? Based on a study of sources 1 , it can be concluded that they did not make much use of this acquired right. Of the total number of representatives(one hundred) elected from 1918 to 1938, only four women became members of the council. Each of them spent only one term on the council. Management of the town The newly established Czechoslovak Republic adopted the Austrian legal system and organisation of public administration. The administration of municipal property remained within the self-governing competence of municipalities. During this period, elections were held under universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage. Every Czechoslovak citizen who had reached the age of 21 and had lived in the municipality for at least three months was entitled to vote. Citizens who met these criteria were included in the voters’ lists, published by the municipal authorities before each election. At the same time, according to the electoral law these citizens were obliged to participate in the elections and had to accept the eventual results of those elections. Every Czechoslovak citizen who had reached the age of 26 and had lived in the municipality for at least one year also had the right to be elected. In order to be eligible for passive suffrage, they had to be placed on the approved candidate list of a particular The minutes of the council meetings reveal that they were not very active and did not have much influence on the running of the town and the building of its modern infrastructure. Next, let us turn to the problems small towns faced in their effort to build modern infrastructure, using municipal projects related to urban sanitation as an example. The post-war period is characterised not only by the deepening social and economic crisis caused by the First World War, but also by the progressive disruption of municipal finances, with currency devaluation penalising creditors and favouring debtors. Deficit budgets and mounting municipal debt became common practice. Municipal revenues at this time were not high enough for municipalities to be able to repay all the debts they had incurred during the war. In this context, Karel Maier notes that immediately after the end of the war, it was common for municipal surcharges to be in the hundreds of per cent, ranging from 300 to 600%, mainly to compensate for the significant drop in other revenues, 1 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 765/373, Municipal elections 1886–1942.

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 70 including the allocations from taxes collected by the state. 2 Let us now focus on the economy of Nové M ě sto na Morav ě in the mentioned period. Residents had to contend with very high surcharges, which peaked in 1924 at 481%. Despite continuous reductions, in 1938 they rose again to 400%. In Nové M ě sto na Morav ě , besides the direct taxes a surcharge on the house tax was also collected. In most cases this was around 200%. In 1924 it was levied at 228%, which was the maximum. From 1929 to 1938, it reached 200%. Thus, Nové M ě sto was struggling with problems in the area of management for a long time. Moreover, high budget deficits increased after the First World War and were compounded by further indebtedness due to the implementation of necessary municipal projects, a topic that will be discussed in more detail below. Sanitation Although the absence of sewers and modern water supply often led to groundwater contamination and subsequent epidemics, even large cities often did not start building modern sewerage systems until the late nineteenth century. In Munich, Germany, for example, sanitation measures did not begin until 1872. The drop in the mortality rate from 40.4% to 26.6% twenty years later clearly shows how significantly these factors could influence the sanitation and health situation in cities. 3 Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century there were discussions in Nové M ě sto about poor sanitary conditions and especially the lack of modern sewerage systems, while the council often faced criticism and complaints about faecal matter leaking into drinking water sources. Despite this, Nové M ě sto did not experience serious epidemiological situations. However, there is evidence of a cholera epidemic in the late 1860s, which was brought to the town by Prussian soldiers. At the turn of the 1860s and 1870s there was also a widespread outbreak of smallpox and scarlet fever. For example, Josef Šír, the mayor of Nové M ě sto, succumbed to smallpox. 4 In 1923, it started to become clear that the construction of a more modern sewerage system was a necessity and the possibilities of its implementation began to be discussed. The creation of cement sewers on Niva, Mala Street and Brn ě nská Street was considered. A competition for companies was announced and the best offer was made by a Mr. Sobotka from Radešínská Svratka. 5 The project was to be paid for out of the surplus from that year’s management. 6 The surviving sources do not provide a complete picture of the planned form of the sewerage systems. However, it is evident that the construction of a systematic sewerage system in Nové M ě sto did not take place during this period and only became relevant again at the end of 1931, when a technical report was prepared. Until then, the town’s practice was mainly to build covered sewers in squares and streets to drain rainwater, i.e. only in places where it seemed most urgent, often only near the most important buildings. Private houses had their own cesspools. These sewers then led to open drains but were probably not of very 2 K. Maier, Hospoda ř ení a rozvoj č eských m ě st 1850–1938 (Prague 2005), 80. 3 P. Kladiwa, A. Pokludová and R. Kafková, Lesk a bída obecních samospráv Moravy a Slezska 1850-1914 . II. díl, 2. svazek, Finance a infrastruktura(Ostrava, 2009), 89. 4 S. Doláková, Obecní samospráva a ob č anské elity v Novém M ě st ě na Morav ě ve druhé polovin ě 19. století, master’s thesis(Masarykova univerzita, 2013), 103 . 5 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 216/209, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1921–1924 . Session of 5 June 1923. 6 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 216/209, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1921–1924 . Session of 20 November 1923.

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 71 good quality. This is evidenced, among other things, by the following extract from a complaint by the director of a large estate about a leaking sewer near the castle: The main municipal sewer running under the pavement next to the castle garden is in such bad condition that, as has been reported verbally several times, the water has been leaking through the wall of the castle garden for about twenty metres since last summer, so that this whole part of the garden is completely muddy, the garden wall is already damaged to such an extent that if a thorough repair is not carried out immediately the wall will collapse, causing numerous expenses to the municipality. For the same reason, the repairs made to the sewer in recent years have proved completely fruitless, so that it would not be advisable to remove the existing evil in the same way, especially as the district road committee is reported to have proceeded to widen the bridge at which the sewer comes out, with the consequence that the final part of the sewer will definitely have to be repaired. 7 However, similar complaints about the pollution of houses and their gardens or other houses with sewage and waste water are innumerable. Moreover, they were all the subject of frequent neighbourly disputes, which in most cases had to be resolved by the council. 8 In August 1931, a general design for a systematic sewerage system for Nové M ě sto na Morav ě was prepared. The estimated cost of the project at that time was CSK2,500,000. The town apparently did not originally order a sewage treatment plant as part of this project. Later, however, it was included in the project with a note that its construction would not cause major difficulties in the overall context, but it would be essential for the functioning of the whole project. As part of this project, the town began to build the sewerage system in stages in different parts of the town and streets. However, the surviving sources show that as early as the early 1940s the municipality began to struggle with its continued construction owing to a lack of funds and throughout the war work proceeded very slowly. Modifications were then made continually throughout the 1940s and 1950s. As a new urban development was being built at the same time, it is not possible to set a clear date for its completion. Finally, the sewage treatment plant was established after 1959 as part of the construction of the first housing estate in Nové M ě sto at Cihel Pond, 9 and in the 1990s another sewage treatment plant was built at the Lou č ka 4 fishing ground(formerly Bobr ů vka). 10 Water supply Like the sewerage system, the construction of the water supply system was one of the most important municipal projects. From the second half of the nineteenth century, the quality and availability of water was a frequently addressed issue. The matter of supplying the population with quality clean water and eliminating the risk of contamination leading to various epidemics and increased mortality became more and more important during the period from 1918 to 1938. 11 From the middle of the nineteenth century onwards, even in small towns, simple gravity-fed water mains often existed alongside wells, distributing water to houses. 12 Although there are not many archival sources on the water supply of Nové M ě sto, we can 7 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/385, Hygienic conditions 1884–1942: town water supply and sewerage. 8 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/385, Municipal water and sewer system. 9 V. K ř esadlo and M. Kružík, Historický kalendá ř Nového M ě sta na Morav ě na léta 1945–1990 (Nové M ě sto na Morav ě , 2011), 112. 10 K ř esadlo and Kružík, Historický kalendá ř , 176(see n. 9). 11 Kladiwa, Pokludová and Kafková, Lesk a bída, 63(see n. 3). 12 Kladiwa, Pokludová and Kafková, Lesk a bída, 66(see n. 3).

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 72 find that primitive wooden water pipes distributed drinking water here, but only in the centre of the town, and citizens living outside the town were still demanding its extension from the town authorities in the early 1890s. As for modern water supply projects, they often collapsed due to a lack of funding. There were, of course, wells operating in the town, but the council often received complaints about their cleanliness. 13 The necessity of establishing a modern water supply system was discussed in Nové M ě sto immediately after the establishment of the independent Czechoslovak Republic. However, it was not until the late 1920s that a significant shift from words to action took place. In 1928, for example, the water springs near the village of Studnice were explored. A chemical analysis was carried out and it was found that the springs contained soft and potable water that was suitable for drinking, cooking and washing. 14 At a meeting in December 1929, it was agreed that a general project for the construction of the water supply system would be commissioned. A professor of Czech engineering, Ing. Dr. Zavadil, 15 was chosen who then prepared a detailed project plan for the sum of CSK27,500. 16 This plan was sent to the district office in Nové M ě sto na Morav ě in July 1931, together with a request for permission to implement it. In October of that same year, the authority finally gave its approval for the implementation of the whole project. The proposal estimates the cost of the project at CSK2,300,000. The town was finally to be supplied with drinking water through a pipeline made of modern steel pipes. 17 At its April 1933 meeting, the town council agreed to proceed with the necessary loans for its construction. By this time, all the preparatory work had been completed and construction work could commence shortly after payment. In this connection, the meeting also revived the discussion on the sewerage system, but no further comments were made against the argument that a proper sewerage system requires a water supply system. The council then unanimously decided to apply for the relevant subsidies and a loan of CSK2,300,000 for the entire project. 18 At the same time, care was taken to ensure that the water pipeline project was profitable. For this reason, it was necessary to attract as many customers as possible from whom the appropriate water charges were to be collected. 19 At a meeting in July of that year, financial bids for excavation work from various companies began to be discussed. On this occasion, however, a debate arose over the timing of the project. Some councillors began to recommend that the construction of the water pipeline should wait until a more favourable time, as the republic was grappling with the effects of the Great Depression and the extra costs of the project could put a heavy financial burden on the population. At the same time, it was proposed that residents should not connect to the water supply at all but still use their wells. Other councillors countered that the entire project would deprive the town of 13 Doláková, Obecní samospráva a ob č anské elity, 102(see n. 4). 14 Chronicle of New Town in Moravia(1919) 1922–1938 , 106. 15 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 217/210, Book of minutes of meetings of the municipal council 1924–1931 . Session of 19 December 1929. 16 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto,, 217/210, Book of minutes of meetings of the municipal council 1924–1931. Session of 25 July 1930. 17 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/385, Sanitary conditions 1884–1942: municipal water supply and sewerage. 18 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 218/211, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1931–1933. Session of 18 April 1933. The subsidy consisted of various financial items provided by numerous institutions, such as funds from the Ministry of Social Welfare, the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Provincial Committee. See SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/385, Sanitary conditions 1884–1942: municipal water supply and sewerage. 19 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/385, Sanitary conditions 1884–1942: municipal water supply and sewerage.

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 73 the care of its fountains and wells, and an argument was also made that the planned construction of the district hospital was contingent on a modern water supply. In the end, a majority of councillors approved the continuation of the work. 20 Major discussions on this project then ceased for some time and were resumed only after the council meeting in January 1935, when, on the recommendation of the State Construction Authority in Brno, a competition was announced for the implementation of the intended project. 21 The best bid was submitted by the Emil Káš company from Brno for CSK1,127,691.80. After a lengthy discussion, the company was also awarded the contract for carrying out the water supply connections for houses for CSK208.250. 22 Construction work finally began on 20 June 1935. 23 At the same time, the entrepreneur undertook to employ local craftsmen and labourers and to observe the forty-hour working week. 24 A large part of the project had already been completed by the end of 1935, by which time most of the buildings in the town were connected to the water supply. Rules regarding tap fees were also approved. It was decided to levy a general water charge, whereby everyone had to pay a certain amount whether they were connected to the water supply or not. The price was also based on the number of rooms that could be connected to the water supply. The price was determined according to the actual consumption where water meters had already been installed. 25 However, the main construction was not completed until August 1936, when the water supply was handed over for temporary use. 26 Work on it continued in the following years, for example in connection with the construction of the hospital or the growth of the town – the building of new housing developments. 27 The aqueduct was officially approved as late as 19 April 1940. 28 However, the capacity of the water supply system was already showing a deficit around 1939, especially after its connection to the newly established district hospital, when austerity measures had to be taken. The crisis was then exacerbated by the severe drought of 1942, when the yield of the springs from which the water supply was drawn dropped significantly. The population hoped for autumn and winter rainfall, but it did not come at the expected intensity and there were great fears of a catastrophe or even a natural disaster in the town. Drinking water was then again drawn from the town’s wells, and the operation of the hospital was also threatened. It was not until December 1943 that the water supply was reinforced with water from the spring in Vávra Meadow near Pohledka. 29 20 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 218/211, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1931–1933. Session of 28 July 1933. 21 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 218/211, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1931–1933 . Session of 18 January 1835. 22 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto,218/211, Book of minutes of the meetings of the municipal council 1931–1933. Session of 6 September 1935. 23 Chronicle of New Town in Moravia(1919) 1922–1938, 109. 24 Chronicle of New Town in Moravia(1919) 1922–1938, 108. He also kept a proper construction diary of the whole project, which has been preserved in the State District Archive in Ž ď ár nad Sázavou. For more details, see SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/386, Hygienic conditions: watercourse modifications. 25 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 219/212, Book of minutes of meetings of the municipal council 1934–1937. Session of 6 December 1935. 26 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/386, Hygienic conditions: watercourse modifications. 27 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 220/213, Book of minutes of meetings of the municipal council 1937–1940. Session of 8 October 1937. 28 SOkA Ž ď ár, AM Nové M ě sto, 789/386 , Hygienic conditions: watercourse modifications. 29 Kladiwa, Pokludová and Kafková, Lesk a bída, 170(see n. 3).

DOI 10.60531/INSIGHTOUT.2024.2.10| DENK: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS_ INSIGHTOUT 2(2024) 74 Conclusion This article has attempted to show the circumstances of the building of modern urban infrastructure from 1918 to 1938 using the example of the small town of Nové M ě sto na Morav ě . During this period, elections were held on the basis of equal and secret voting. For the first time, women could participate fully in elections. It has been observed here that women did not take full advantage of this right and of the total number of councillors elected in this period(one hundred persons), only four of them were women. Moreover, they were not very active and did not have much influence on the running of the town. on had access to the infrastructure. In this regard, it may prove fruitful for future research to explore the introduction of electricity, which at the beginning only the more affluent citizens could afford. A difficult task faced by the municipal council was the management of municipal finances. Throughout the period under review, Nové M ě sto struggled with high debt and a growing municipal budget deficit. The town tried to address the poor economic situation by imposing high surcharges on direct taxes(and sometimes also on the house tax). The surcharges, which in some years exceeded 400%, were a heavy burden on the local population and hampered the town’s economic growth. Moreover, the town’s indebtedness was deepening due to the necessity to invest in essential municipal projects. One of the most important was solving the unsustainable sanitary situation in the town, which involved in particular the construction of a water supply and sewerage system. Although the implementation of these projects came very late, they benefited all the residents of the town, regardless of gender. In the case of small towns such as Nové M ě sto na Morav ě , it is rather difficult to look for a gender aspect. The composition of the council was largely male, but all segments of the populati-